War Warnings
The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941 caught diplomats on both sides in each other's foreign capital where they suddenly became enemy aliens. This soon resulted in negotiations with Spain as a neutral government to arrange the exchange of each legation back to their home country not something easily accomplished.
I first became aware of this little known issue as a result of a colleague I met during my post with the U. S. Department of State at an American Embassy twenty years after the 1942 exchange. My friend recounted his experience at the American Embassy in Tokyo when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Later he was involved, with U. S. Ambassador Joseph Grew, in the exchange for Ambassador Admiral Kichisaburo Nomura and Special Envoy Saburo Kurusu and several Japanese consular officers with their staff and dependents who were posted throughout the United States and Hawaii
The exchange was to eventually take place in June 1942 on the east coast of Africa at Lourenco Marques in Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique). The location was a neutral port almost at the half way point. The trade would not occur until about six months after the start of hostilities. The war had been suspected by the higher echelons of the American military for some time. Their suspicions were a result of belligerent actions of the Japanese military as well as from reading Japanese secret diplomatic codes.
American government cryptologists had been reading Japanese diplomatic codes as well as their naval codes for sometime prior to the outbreak of war. By December 7, 1941 U. S. cryptologists had broken the Japanese diplomatic codes twenty-five times since the first decoding in 1920. The cryptographic machine used by the Japanese Foreign Office just before and during World War II was code named "Purple. “The information gained from decryptions was eventually code-named "Magic", a term first applied by an astonished President Roosevelt upon reading the secret transmissions.
The "Purple” machine was an electromechanical stepping-switch device used in high-tech telephone exchanges that had modern dial-telephone systems in large cities. These fast switches were at the heart of the system. The code name "Purple” referred to the color of the binders used by cryptanalysts.
The spying process consisted of four phases:
1 -Interception: The Japanese Foreign Office (Gaimusho) used both wireless transmission and cables to communicate with its off shore units. Wireless transmission was intercepted (when possible) by the U. S. at any of several listening stations in Hawaii, Guam and elsewhere and the raw cypher groups would then be forwarded to Washington.
2 -Deciphering: Raw intercepts were deciphered by either the U. S. Army or the Navy.
3 -Translation: Having obtained the plain text in code, in Latin style letters, it was then translated.
4 -Evaluation:The translated decrypt had to be evaluated for its intelligence content. For example, was the ostensible content of the message meaningful? Or, might it be one message in a series where the meaning, taken together, would be more than the meaning of any individual message.
Thus, a message to an embassy instructing that embassy to direct Japanese merchant ships calling at that country to return to home waters before, say, the end of November would be more significant than a single such message directed to a single ship or port. Only after having evaluated a translated decrypt for its intelligence value could a determination be made whether it deserved to be distributed to a select few within the U. S. Government.
As early as January 27, 1941, almost eleven months before the attack on America's Pacific fleet the United States Ambassador in Japan, Joseph Grew, in a message to the U. S. Secretary of State, Cordell Hull warned of an attack on Pearl Harbor.
Secret Telegram From: TOKYO, January 27, 1941-6 p. m. To: Washington [Received January 27-6: 38 a. m. ]
A member of the Embassy was told by my ------ (1) colleague that from many quarters, including a Japanese one, he had heard that a surprise mass attack on Pearl Harbor was planned by the Japanese military forces, in case of "trouble” between Japan and the United States; that the attack would involve the use of all the Japanese military facilities. My colleague said that he was prompted to pass this on because it had come to him from many sources, although the plan seemed fantastic. GREW Source: U. S. Department of State, Publication 1983, Peace and War:
(1) Note: The name of the individual who informed Ambassador Grew was omitted in his telegram. Years later it was revealed to be the Peruvian Ambassador to Japan.
Five days before the outbreak of war the following translated message is only one of several U. S. intercepts indicating that Japan was nearing the final stage of offensive action. In it Tokyo requests its consulate in Hawaii to provide intelligence on naval activity at Pearl Harbor. Still it was uncertain among some in the U. S. intelligence community as to where and when the attack might occur. [Secret] From: Tokyo (Togo) 2 December 1942 To: Honolulu
123. (Secret outside the department. )
In view of the present situation, the presence in port of warships, airplane carriers, and cruisers is of utmost importance. Hereafter, to the utmost of your ability, let me know day by day. Wire me in each case whether or not there are any observation balloons above Pearl Harbor or if there are any indications that they will be sent up. Also advise me whether or not the warships are provided with anti-mine sets. Source: U. S. Department of State,op. cit.
While there may still remain a degree of civility between diplomats in time of war it rarely extends beyond the rarefied air of that exclusive club to the opposing military forces as each "claws and chews at each other's throats. “
Since part of America's Pacific fleet lay wrecked at Pearl Harbor, United States Ambassador Joseph Grew, being confined to his closed Embassy, dispatched his last cable to Washington quoting a message he had received from Imperial Japan after the American Embassy had been placed incommunicado. It read: Telegram From: TOKYO, undated To: Washington [Received December 10, 1941-2:35 a. m. ] The following note was received yesterday: "From Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo, December 8, 1941. Excellency, I have the honor to inform Your Excellency that there has arisen a state of war between Your Excellency's country and Japan beginning today.
Signed Shigenori Togo, Minister for Foreign Affaires. “GREW Source: U. S. Department of State,op. cit.
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Shortly after Japan's formal declaration of war, the following cable from the Japanese ambassador in Germany was intercepted and decrypted by U. S. intelligence. The Berlin message advised Tokyo that Hitler will declare war on the United States. [Secret] From: Berlin To: Tokyo December 8, 1941 Purple (Priority)
1437 Limited distribution
At 1:00 p. m. today (8th) I called on Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and told him our wish was to have Germany and Italy issue formal declarations of war on America at once. Ribbentrop replied that Hitler was then in the midst of a conference at general headquarters discussing how the formalities of declaring war could be carried out so as to make a good impression on the German people. At that time Ribbentrop told me that on the morning of the 8th Hitler issued orders to the entire German navy to attack American ships whenever and wherever they may meet them.
It goes without saying that this is only for your secret information.
Army Trans 12/9/41 Source: U. S. Department of State,op. cit.
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At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor the American public would probably have been quite content with dealing with Japan by leaving the war in Europe to the Europeans. The treachery of the Japanese attack burned bright in the minds of most Americans, and they wanted revenge.
Had it not been for the declaration of war by Germany, Roosevelt would have had a difficult time justifying a declaration of war against Germany before Japan's military was destroyed.
Shortly after Japan's formal declaration of war, Hitler joined Japan and declared war on the United States on December 11th followed by Italy. Thus Hitler did for Roosevelt what the President could not do for himself in bringing the U. S. into the war in Europe.
Winston Churchill was now so confident of victory he remarked when he heard of Pearl Harbor, “so we have won after all!”
Very shortly thereafter the FBI closed the Washington Embassies of the Axis nations and with a few days arranged for all enemy diplomats, their families and staff to be transported 250 miles by rail for internment at two hotels in the somewhat isolated mountains of Virginia and West Virginia.
When this transfer occurred the internees could only take a few personal belongings. It is not known if Japanese Ambassador, Admiral Kichisaburo Nomura or Special Envoy Saburo Kurusu instructed the removal of the Emperor's portrait from the Embassy and transported it to the hotel. It is an absolute requirement that the Emperor's portrait be removed to a place of safety in the event of harmful circumstances. To permit any form of desecration to befall the Emperor's likeness is an act of grave disservice, dishonor and disrespect. The likeness of the Emperor is regarded with such reverence it is always among the first object to be carefully protected and removed when an abandon ship command is issued by the vessel's captain from a sinking ship. To be continued.
Editor's Note: For this series the author, a former U. S. State Department foreign service officer, condensed selected portions of his manuscript,"East of the Sun West of the Stars” was planned for publication in 2008. December 4, 2007.